Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: Adding conditions of methacrylic anhydride at various concentrations.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: Critical-sized full-thickness skin defect procedure and 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold transplantation. ( A-C ) Under anesthesia, the dorsal mid-lumbar region of the rat was shaved and cleaned, and the defect size was marked. ( D ) A critical-sized (2 × 2 cm 2 ) square-shape piece of skin was excised, and ( E-G ) the defect was transplanted with either GelMA alone or GelMA + ASCs + HPL. (H) The wound was covered with BACTIGRAS antiseptic dressing, gauze, and Tegaderm transparent film dressing. (I) To secure the transplant in place, four stitches attaching the bandage to the skin were applied.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques: Transplantation Assay

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: 1 H-NMR spectra of obtained GelMA samples compared to fish skin gelatin.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: Degree of substitution of fish skin GelMA samples.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: DSC thermogram of the fish skin GelMA samples.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: ( A ) Bar graph and ( B ) trend curve showing the swelling rate of the fish skin GelMA samples over a 24-h period. Data are expressed as mean ± SD ( n = 3/sample).

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: ( A ) A compressive strength test of the fish skin GelMA samples ( n = 3/sample). Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences were assessed between the two experimental groups as indicated. ( B ) Printability of the fish skin GelMA95 sample at a concentration of 10% of PBS (w/v) after 8, 15, and 30 min of bio-ink preparation.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques: Concentration Assay

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: ( A ) Viscosity and shear stress profiles relative to shear rate of the 10% w/v fish skin GelMA solution at 25 °C, ( B ) Temperature sweep test of the 10% w/v fish skin GelMA solution.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques: Viscosity, Shear

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: The cell viability (%) of ASCs in the 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold over 120 h. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Statistical differences were assessed between the two experimental groups at the same time-point as indicated.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques:

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: ( A ) Photographs of square wound closure kinetics at day 0, 3, 7, 10, and 14 during the wound healing process of three experimental groups: untreated, GelMA, and GelMA + ASCs + HPL. ( B ) The percentage of unclosed wound area for each experimental group; data are expressed as mean ± standard error of the mean ( n = 9/ group). ( C ) Representative SHG gray scale intensity images of collagen deposition from biopsy samples taken at day 14 post-wound creation. ( D ) Representative histological images of Masson’s trichrome (MT) staining of wound Sect. (40×): (i) untreated wound, wound treated with either (ii) GelMA or (iii) GelMA + ASCs + HPL at day 14. Blue staining indicates collagen fiber formation. GelMA + ASCs + HPL demonstrated deep blue staining compared with the other groups (untreated wound and wound treated with GelMA). Higher magnification (200 ×) of immunohistochemistry staining for type I collagen enlarged from the black dotted square of each correspondence image. Scale bars are 100 μm in ( C ) and 500 μm in ( D ).

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques: Staining, Immunohistochemistry

Journal: Scientific Reports

Article Title: 3D bioprinting of fish skin-based gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) bio-ink for use as a potential skin substitute

doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-73774-1

Figure Lengend Snippet: ( A ) Histological images of wound sections stained with anti-CD31 for the untreated wound and wounds treated with GelMA or GelMA + ASCs + HPL at day 14. New blood vessel formation (neovascularization) is indicated by arrowheads. Bar = 50 μm. ( B ) The number of blood vessels on day 14 of the wound treated with GelMA + ASCs + HPL was significantly higher than the untreated wound at the wound edge and wound bed.

Article Snippet: The 3D GelMA hydrogel scaffold was designed with Cellink Heart Ware Repetier – Host Software version 2.1.3 and printed using a 3D bioprinter (CELLINK, Gothenburg, Sweden) in a honeycomb square shape with dimensions of 20 × 20 × 2 mm 3 .

Techniques: Staining

Journal: Advanced healthcare materials

Article Title: Bioprinted Osteogenic and Vasculogenic Patterns for Engineering 3D Bone Tissue

doi: 10.1002/adhm.201700015

Figure Lengend Snippet: A pyramidal shaped complex large-scaled bone construct architectures fabricated by 3D bioprinted GelMA hydrogel rods with diverse compositions. (A) Schematic illustration of complex bone tissue structure. (B) Illustration of the bioprinting strategy for fabricating complex bone tissue architecture. A perfusable vascular lumen lined with HUVECs can be fabricated within a pyramidal bioprinted construct by arranging individual rods of VEGF-functionalized GelMA bioinks with different mechanical strengths. The hMSCs-laden three outer layers of cylinders were loaded with silicate nanoparticles to induce osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs into bone tissue. The VEGF was covalently conjugated into the three outer layers of the cylindrical hydrogels. The concentrations of conjugated VEGF were determined with ELISA as 17.1, 34.2, and 68.5 ng/ml. (C) Scheme of the 3D printing procedure of independent cell-laden cylinders using an automatized and computer-controlled bioprinter. (D) Cross-section image of the pyramidal bioprinted construct. (E) Chemical conjugation of a gradient sulforhodamine 101 (Texas Red) cadaverine onto –COOH modified GelMA bioprinted fibers. The fluorescence intensity was directly proportional to the conjugated amount of the fluorescent dye.

Article Snippet: Bioprinting of GelMA-based 3D constructs: A NovoGen MMX Bioprinter ™ (Organovo) was used for bioprinting to print the constructs.

Techniques: Construct, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay, Conjugation Assay, Modification, Fluorescence

Journal: Bioactive Materials

Article Title: “Slow walk” mimetic tensile loading maintains human meniscus tissue resident progenitor cells homeostasis in photocrosslinked gelatin hydrogel

doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.01.025

Figure Lengend Snippet: Design and application of GelMA-based mechanical actuator to provide biomimetic cyclic tensile loading to hydrogel-encapsulated hMeSPCs. (a) Diagrammatic representation of tensile loading in the native meniscal resident cells in the load-bearing joint, specifically showing joint load-bearing of meniscus tissue at a "slow walk" speed. (b) Elastic moduli of the ECM and PCM of various regions of the native porcine meniscus at the microscopic level, evaluated by AFM; data adopted from Ref. . (c) Young's modulus values of 10% and 15% w/v GelMA with 30%, 60%, and 90% DS. *, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001. Data are mean ± SD, n ≥ 6. (d) Operating principle of the actuator. Anchoring point: big block of GelMA with anchor to fix the whole hydrogel construct in the cell culture plate in a certain position; Loading arms: GelMA hydrogel with/without cells can be loaded in the loading arms, and the magnetic beads are loaded in the end of the loading arms; S0, loading arms fixation point; S1, the end position of loading arms without the influence of magnetic field; S2, hydrogel elongation position when the magnetic field is applied; a photo of the actuator can be found in . (e) Picture of the GelMA constructs: GelMA hydrogel elongation in response to external magnetic stimuli to provide cyclic tensile loading on the loading arms. (f) Swelling ratio of the GelMA hydrogel (10% w/v, 60% DS) under static and loading conditions at days 0, 5, 10, and 15. (g) Harvesting strategy for hMeSPCs.

Article Snippet: With the 3D GelMA hydrogel cyclic loading cell culture system, we found that a “slow walk” biomimetic cyclic loading regimen (10% tensile strain, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day, up to 15 days) significantly increased (i) hMeSPC differentiation, ( ii ) fibrocartilage-like ECM deposition, and ( iii ) the mechanobiological response of 3D encapsulated hMeSPCs and their interactions with GelMA hydrogel.

Techniques: Blocking Assay, Construct, Cell Culture, Magnetic Beads

Journal: Bioactive Materials

Article Title: “Slow walk” mimetic tensile loading maintains human meniscus tissue resident progenitor cells homeostasis in photocrosslinked gelatin hydrogel

doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.01.025

Figure Lengend Snippet: Cell viability, cell morphology, and mechanical property of hMeSPC-GelMA constructs after mechanical loading. (a) Mechanical loading regimen for GelMA hydrogel, consisting of 10% elongation under cyclic loading. S0, fixation point; S1, starting point; S2, 10% hydrogel elongation, at which point the tensile load drops off and the hydrogel starts to restore to the relaxation point, S3; S4, maximum elongation point, where the loading arms are maximally elongated in response to magnetic force at this point. (b) LIVE/DEAD staining of hMeSPCs encapsulated in GelMA hydrogel (10% w/v, 60% DS) after static culture and tensile loading at days 0, 5, 10, 15. Left panel: green, live cells; right panel: red, dead cells. Scale bar = 100 μm. (c) Flow cytometric analysis of PI stained hMeSPCs released after 2D culture ( Ctrl ), and 3D cultures maintained under static ( Static ), and tensile loading ( Loaded , 10% elongation, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day) conditions at day 15. The % of dead cells are estimated based on the relative number of PI positive cells in the total population. 3 batches (n = 9 biological donors) were examined with 3 technical repeats. Representative data from 1 batch is shown. (d) Representative images of cytoskeletal morphology (F-actin, phalloidin-iFluor 555 staining, red; nuclei, DAPI staining, blue). (e) Cross-sectional cell shape aspect ratio of the encapsulated hMeSPCs under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, 15. Data were analyzed by ANOVA; ***, p < 0.001 between static and loaded groups at days 10 and 15. Data are mean ± SD; n = 8 random views from high magnification field (HMF) per group. (f) Quantification of protrusions in hMeSPCs under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, and 15. N = the number of counted cells in hydrogel. Data are mean ± SD, analyzed by ANOVA; ** , p < 0.01 and **** , p < 0.0001 between static and loaded groups at days 10 and 15, respectively. (g) Representative pictures of stress-strain curves of GelMA constructs with or without encapsulated hMeSPCs, maintained under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, 15. Data were collected from n = 3 batches with total of 9 biological donors; each experiment was performed with triplicates as technical repeats. The X axis is strain, and the number represent length change (mm)/original length (mm), and the Y axis is stress (MPa). (h) Young's modulus values of GelMA constructs with or without encapsulated hMeSPCs, maintained under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, 15. Data were collected from n = 3 batches with total of 9 biological donors; each experiment was performed with triplicates as technical repeats. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc was used to study the difference between groups; Data are mean ± SD. GelMA only-Loaded groups vs GelMA only-Static groups: *** , p < 0.001 and **** , p < 0.0001; GelMA + cell-Loaded groups vs GelMA + cell-Static groups: ^ , p < 0.05; GelMA + cell-Static groups vs GelMA only-Static groups: #### , p < 0.0001; GelMA + cell-Loaded groups vs GelMA only-Loaded groups: & , p < 0.05 and && , p < 0.01. (i) Maximum elongation (S3–S4) of GelMA hydrogel cultures at days 5, 10, and 15 after loading, normalized to initial length of GelMA-hydrogel arms (S0–S3). Two-way ANOVA: *, p < 0.05 between day 15 and day 0 in GelMA only group; and # , p < 0.05 between day 15 and day 5 in GelMA only group. Data were collected from n = 3 batches with a total of 9 biological donors; each experiment was performed with triplicates as technical repeats.

Article Snippet: With the 3D GelMA hydrogel cyclic loading cell culture system, we found that a “slow walk” biomimetic cyclic loading regimen (10% tensile strain, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day, up to 15 days) significantly increased (i) hMeSPC differentiation, ( ii ) fibrocartilage-like ECM deposition, and ( iii ) the mechanobiological response of 3D encapsulated hMeSPCs and their interactions with GelMA hydrogel.

Techniques: Construct, Staining

Journal: Bioactive Materials

Article Title: “Slow walk” mimetic tensile loading maintains human meniscus tissue resident progenitor cells homeostasis in photocrosslinked gelatin hydrogel

doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.01.025

Figure Lengend Snippet: Biomimetic tensile loading of hMeSPCs enhanced meniscus-like ECM generation and deposition. (a & b) Safranin O staining of the histologic sections of hMeSPCs-GelMA constructs cultured with (loaded) or without (static) biomimetic loading at 0, 5, 10, and 15 days ( a, blue arrowheads indicating positively stained areas), and ( b ) quantification of Safranin O-stained areas. (c & d) Immunostaining for Col I deposition ( c , red arrowheads) in the hMeSPCs-GelMA constructs cultured with or without biomimetic loading at days 0, 5, 10, 15, and ( d ) quantification of Col I positive staining area. (e) Immunostaining for Col II deposition ( e , red arrowheads) by hMeSPCs with or without biomimetic loading at days 0, 5, 10, 15, and (f) quantification of Col II positive staining area. Histological analysis of each hydrogel construct shown above was performed at three different regions of interests (ROIs) of each culture under 10× magnification of light microscopy. The positive staining area within GelMA hydrogel structure was quantified using Image J (NIH, US). The experiment was repeated three times with cells from B1, B2 and B3, separately, with 3 technical repeats in each group. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc between groups; *, p < 0.05; **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001. Data are mean ± SD, scale bar = 100 μm. (g) Ratio of Col II to Col I immunostained areas in hMeSPCs-GelMA constructs cultured with (loaded) or without (static) biomimetic loading. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc between groups; *, p < 0.05. Data are mean ± SD, n = 3. (h) Diagrammatic representation of the ECM content in the inner and outer meniscus tissue. Static , Loaded: as described in .

Article Snippet: With the 3D GelMA hydrogel cyclic loading cell culture system, we found that a “slow walk” biomimetic cyclic loading regimen (10% tensile strain, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day, up to 15 days) significantly increased (i) hMeSPC differentiation, ( ii ) fibrocartilage-like ECM deposition, and ( iii ) the mechanobiological response of 3D encapsulated hMeSPCs and their interactions with GelMA hydrogel.

Techniques: Staining, Construct, Cell Culture, Immunostaining, Light Microscopy

Journal: Bioactive Materials

Article Title: “Slow walk” mimetic tensile loading maintains human meniscus tissue resident progenitor cells homeostasis in photocrosslinked gelatin hydrogel

doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.01.025

Figure Lengend Snippet: Degradation of GFT-GelMA hydrogel constructs with or without encapsulated hMeSPCs under intermittent tensile loading. (a) Picrosirius Red staining (collagen stain: pink for thin fibers and red for thick fibers) of histologic sections of the hMeSPCs-GelMA constructs under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, and 15. Representative micrographs from 3 batches of cultures. Scale bar = 100 μm. (b) Histomorphometric analysis of porosity as a function of culture time, in terms of average pore area (diameter 2 , d 2 ) and number of pores in the indicated ranges of pore area. (c) Porosity of GelMA constructs with and without encapsulated hMeSPCs cultured under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, and 15. Porosity is calculated as total area of pores (number × π.d 2 /4) expressed as a percentage of total area of the microscopic field. In ( b ) and ( c ), data were collected from 3 batches of cultures consisting of cells derived from 9 biological donors, with triplicates as technical repeats. In ( c ), Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc was used to compare between groups. Data are mean ± SD. GelMA only-Loaded groups vs GelMA only-Static groups: ** , p < 0.01; GelMA + cell-Static groups vs GelMA only-Static groups: ## , p < 0.01, ### , p < 0.001; GelMA + cell-Loaded groups vs GelMA only-Loaded groups: & , p < 0.05. (d) Representative GFT fluorescence (left panels) and corresponding heatmap intensity of GFT loss (FIH, right panels) images of GFT-GelMA hydrogel constructs with or without encapsulated hMeSPCs cultured under static and loaded conditions at days 0, 5, 10, and 15. Scale bar = 100 μm. Representative micrographs from 3 batches of cultures consisting of cells derived from 9 biological donors. (e) Daily release of fluorescent soluble products derived from degraded GFT-GelMA constructs with or without encapsulated hMeSPCs cultured under static and loaded conditions. GFT-GelMA (60% DS) was used at 10% w/v and hMeSPCs were seeded at 2.5 × 10 5 cells per 50 μl GelMA. Data (arbitrary units, mean ± SD) were collected from 3 batches of cultures consisting of cells derived from 9 biological donors, with triplicates as technical repeats. Two-way ANOVA with post-hoc between groups. GelMA + cell-Static groups vs GelMA only-Static groups: * , p < 0.05, ** , p < 0.01, *** , p < 0.001; GelMA + cell-Loaded groups vs GelMA only-Loaded groups: # , p < 0.05, ## , p < 0.01, ### , p < 0.001. (f) Expression of ECM dynamic-related genes regulated by intermittent tensile stimulation (loaded vs static; red, up-regulated; blue, down-regulated), and classified by biological function, based on transcriptome analysis described in . (g) Protein-protein interaction network of the corresponding regulated genes. Data were included and analyzed from RNA-seq data intersection of B1 and B2. Static , Loaded: as described in .

Article Snippet: With the 3D GelMA hydrogel cyclic loading cell culture system, we found that a “slow walk” biomimetic cyclic loading regimen (10% tensile strain, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day, up to 15 days) significantly increased (i) hMeSPC differentiation, ( ii ) fibrocartilage-like ECM deposition, and ( iii ) the mechanobiological response of 3D encapsulated hMeSPCs and their interactions with GelMA hydrogel.

Techniques: Construct, Staining, Cell Culture, Derivative Assay, Fluorescence, Expressing, RNA Sequencing

Journal: Bioactive Materials

Article Title: “Slow walk” mimetic tensile loading maintains human meniscus tissue resident progenitor cells homeostasis in photocrosslinked gelatin hydrogel

doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.01.025

Figure Lengend Snippet: Diagrammatic representation of ECM dynamics in hMeSPC-GelMA hydrogel constructs cultured under biomimetic tensile loading conditions. Red, hydrogel construct retention; Pink, GelMA degradation; and green, ECM deposition.

Article Snippet: With the 3D GelMA hydrogel cyclic loading cell culture system, we found that a “slow walk” biomimetic cyclic loading regimen (10% tensile strain, 0.5 Hz, 1 h/day, up to 15 days) significantly increased (i) hMeSPC differentiation, ( ii ) fibrocartilage-like ECM deposition, and ( iii ) the mechanobiological response of 3D encapsulated hMeSPCs and their interactions with GelMA hydrogel.

Techniques: Construct, Cell Culture

Journal: Bioengineering

Article Title: Bioengineered Approaches for Esophageal Regeneration: Advancing Esophageal Cancer Therapy

doi: 10.3390/bioengineering12050479

Figure Lengend Snippet: Trends in publication counts from 1990 to 2023 on esophageal regenerative and reconstructive approaches, including esophageal reconstruction surgery, esophageal transplantation surgery, esophageal tissue engineering, and bioprinting. Data were compiled and analyzed by the author using Google Scholar search results.

Article Snippet: Square , ~3 × 5 mm 2 , Patch , 3D bioprinting (GelMA, SFMA, Fe 3 O 4 , BMSC) , 9 days , Hydrogel scaffold supports cell growth and differentiation, aligning BMSCs into SMCs to create a transplantable biomimetic muscle construct It effectively restores smooth muscle structure by enhancing SMC alignment and ECM remodeling , [ ] .

Techniques: Transplantation Assay